The GDF15 gene encodes a protein that is a secretory ligand of TGF-β (transforming growth factor-beta). Ligands of this family bind to various TGF-β receptors, leading to the recruitment and activation of the SMAD family of transcription factors that regulate gene expression. GDF15 is associated with hypoxia, inflammation, and oxidative stress, and is released from endothelial cells after stimulation by pro-inflammatory cytokines. GDF15 is considered a target and biomarker for cardiovascular diseases due to its cardioprotective effects in the adult heart. GDF15 is highly expressed in the placenta. GDF15 is also involved in human embryonic development and is essential for maintaining pregnancy. GDF15-GFRAL signaling induces the expression of genes involved in metabolism, such as lipid metabolism in adipose tissue.
